The Chrysalids: A Science Fiction Novel

â€Å"It's often said that Science Fiction is the literature of change. † (Treitel). When a society is going through a period in which they develop many new technologies, science fiction stories often emerge. The feelings and fears of that society are expressed in science fiction. The Chrysalids, a science fiction novel, incorporates characteristics of its genre by being set in a different world, by relating to current events and by showing how destructive power can be. Setting plays a prominent role in defining a science fiction story. Science fiction texts are often set in the future, in space, on a different world, or in a different universe or dimension. † (â€Å"Definition†). John Wyndham's novel, The Chrysalids, is set centuries in the future. â€Å"But, Uncle, if we don't try to be like the Old People and rebuild the things that have been lost, what can we do? † (Wyndham 79). The word science fiction brings to mind futuristic worlds full of whirring machines and shiny metals. This novel takes an alternate approach; it shows a world so devastated by nuclear war that it has actually regressed, and yet it is still a possible future. In addition to being set in the future, this novel shows a changed Earth. â€Å"†¦ An Offense was sometimes quite an impressive occasion†¦ My father†¦ would call us all together, including everyone who worked on the farm. We would all kneel while he proclaimed our repentance and led prayers for forgiveness. The next morning we would all be up before daylight and gather in the yard. As the sun rose we would sing a hymn while my father ceremonially slaughtered the two-headed calf, four-legged chicken, or whatever kind of Offense it happened to be. † (Wyndham 18). The world John Wyndham has created is so different from the current reality, it is almost a separate entity. In the fictional reality, the people are terrified of anything different from what they perceive to be the norm. They kill, burn or cast out anything considered to be a deviation. This setting allows the writer to explore terrifying concepts with distance while still creating parallels with current societies. Setting is a vital part of any science fiction story. Furthermore, science fiction relates to current events. â€Å"Good [science fiction]†¦ can provide us with fascinating thought experiments to while way the hours, or extrapolate future dystopias from the politics of the present; it can generate visions of tomorrow's world, or of worlds eons hence; it can warn or it can soothe†¦ † (Clute 6). The Chrysalids explores the impact of nuclear weapons. â€Å"The whole seaboard is empty – black and harsh and empty. The land looks like a huge desert of c harcoal. Where there are cliffs they are sharp-edged, with nothing to soften them. There are no fish in the sea there, no weed either, not even slime, and when a ship has sailed there the barnacles and the fouling on her bottom drop off, and leave her hull clean. You don't see any birds. Nothing moves at all, except the waves breaking on the black beaches. † (Wyndham 60). This novel was first published in 1955, shortly after World War II and at a time when many people were protesting the use of nuclear bombs. People saw the destruction these weapons were capable of and they were afraid. The Chrysalids is a response to that fear; it shows one possible future. Propaganda is another issue discussed in The Chrysalids. â€Å"Not ashamed! Not ashamed of producing a mockery of your Maker – not ashamed of trying to tempt your own sister into criminal conspiracy! The enemies of God besiege us. They seek to strike at Him through us. Unendingly they work to distort the true image; through our weaker vessels they attempt to defile the race. You have sinned, woman†¦ You have produced a defilement†¦ A baby which, if you were to have your way, would grow up to breed, and, breeding, spread pollution until all around us there would be mutants and abominations. † (Wyndham 72). In 1955, the Cold War was in full swing. Spies and secrets abounded while children were told that the other side is evil and propaganda slowly poisoned their minds. Eventually, they believe the lies. Joseph Strorm truly believes what he is saying; he feels that his sister-in-law should kill her newborn child, rather than let it grow and eventually have children of its own. Science fiction often incorporates concerns of the author and the general public at that time. Additionally, science fiction often involves the misuse of power. â€Å"[Science fiction] suggests the possibility of scientific discovery going too far, taking on a God-like power that leads to disaster. † (Quinn) In The Chrysalids there are two examples of destructive power. Firstly, there is nuclear power. â€Å"This is a dreadful country indeed†¦ There are stretches, miles across, where it looks as if all the ground has been fused into black glass; there is nothing else†¦ It goes on and on†¦ What did they do here? What can they have done to create such a frightful place?†¦ It must be utterly beyond hope, barred to any kind of life for ever and ever†¦ There was the power of gods in the hands of children, we know: but were they mad children, all of them quite mad?†¦ The mountains are cinders and the plains are black glass – still, after centuries! † (Wyndham 179). Power is a dangerous thing, as evidenced by the burned mountains and plains of glass discussed in this novel. Power is a popular topic for science fiction stories because so many people crave it, despite its poor history and bleak future. The Chrysalids looks at the consequences of nuclear warfare and the idea that this kind of power is not meant for human hands. The second type of power explored in The Chrysalids, is the power of conformity. â€Å"According to Ethics, mankind†¦ was in the process of climbing back into grace; we were following a faint and difficult trail which led up to the peaks from which we had fallen†¦ There was only one true trail, and by following it we should, with God's help and in His own good time, regain all that had been lost†¦ Only the authorities, ecclesiastical and lay, were in a position to judge whether the next step was a rediscovery, and so, safe to take; or whether it deviated from the true re-ascent, and so was sinful. † (Wyndham 40). As a race attempting to rebuild its society, conformity and a deference to authority figures would have been beneficial. However, change is necessary for growth. Having a world full of people like Joseph Strorm, who fear change as a deviation from the true path, will bring about the destruction of that society. In The Chrysalids, authority figures force everyone to conform to their idea of what is right and what is sinful. This kind of power is dangerous and, at the end of book, brings about the death of Joseph Strorm and many like him. Destructive power is a popular theme in science fiction novels. Due to its setting, relation to reality and demonstration of various destructive powers, The Chrysalids is clearly a science fiction novel. Science fiction can be many things; it can be educational, providing lessons and morals that apply to real life scenarios; it can be a warning, showing the readers a possible or a probable fate; or it can simply take the reader on a fantastic journey, flying through space and time. Above all science fiction is about change. â€Å"Life is change, that is how it differs from the rocks, change is its very nature. † (Wyndham 182). The Chrysalids, and science fiction in general, teaches that nothing in life is static.

A workout for working memory

New research suggests that mental exercises might enhance one of the brain's central components for reasoning and problem-solving.People may be able to remember a nearly infinite number of facts, but only a handful of items–held in working memory–can be accessed and considered at any given moment. It's the reason why a person might forget to buy an item or two on a mental grocery list, or why most people have difficulty adding together large numbers.In fact, working memory could be the basis for general intelligence and reasoning: Those who can hold many items in their mind may be well equipped to consider different angles of a complex problem simultaneously.If psychologists could help people expand their working-memory capacity or make it function more efficiently, everyone could benefit, from chess masters to learning-disabled children, says Torkel Klingberg, MD, PhD, an assistant cognitive neuroscience professor at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden. Children with at tention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), for example, might especially benefit from working-memory training, says Rosemary Tannock, PhD, a psychologist and psychiatry professor at The Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto.â€Å"It could be that working-memory problems give rise to observable behavioral symptoms of ADHD: distractibility and also poor academic achievement,† she says. Working-memory deficits might also underpin some reading disabilities, as it controls the ability to recall words read earlier in a sentence, says Tannock.But how–or even if–working memory can be expanded through training remains a topic of hot contention among psychologists. Some argue that working memory has a set limit of about four items, and that individual differences in working memory arise from the ability to group small bits of information into larger chunks. However, new research suggests that working-memory capacity could expand with practice–a finding that cou ld shed new light on this central part of the mind's architecture, as well as potentially lead to treatments for ADHD or other learning disabilities.Functional limitationsOne such study–by researchers at Syracuse University–hit upon the potential trainability while attempting to resolve a debate in the literature on the limits of working memory.Since the 1950s, psychologists have found one aspect of working memory–sometimes referred to as the focus of attention–to have severe limitations. For example, George Miller, PhD–a founder of cognitive psychology and a psychology professor at Princeton University–established that people generally can't recall lists of numbers more than seven digits long.Those who exceeded that limit tended to make smaller groups of numbers into larger ones, using a process called â€Å"chunking.† For example, people familiar with U.S. intelligence agencies would see the letter group â€Å"FBICIA† as two chunks, rather the six letters, and that set of letters would only occupy two slots in a person's memory, rather than six.In recent years, however, evidence is mounting that the limitation of working memory is somewhere between one and four information chunks.The downward revision results from new techniques to keep people from chunking information, which can create the illusion of greater fundamental storage capacity, says Nelson Cowan, PhD, a psychology professor at the University of Missouri–Columbia. In one common chunking-prevention method, participants repeat meaningless phrases over and over while performing working memory tasks such as memorizing lists of numbers.A recent literature review by Cowan, published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (Vol. 24, No. 1, pages 87–185), makes the case that a variety of working-memory measures all converge on a set limit of four items.Other researchers have suggested that working-memory capacity is limited even further œto just a single item. In a study by Brian McElree, PhD, a psychology professor at New York University, participants underwent a test of working memory called â€Å"n-back.†In the task, the participants read a series of numbers, presented one at a time on a computer screen. In the easiest version of the task, the computer presents a new digit, and then prompts participants to recall what number immediately preceded the current one. More difficult versions might ask participants to recall what number appeared two, three or four digits ago.McElree found that participants recalled the immediately preceding numbers in a fraction of the time it took them to recall numbers presented more than one number ago–a finding published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition (Vol. 27, No. 1, pages 817–835.)â€Å"There is clear and compelling evidence of one unit being maintained in focal attention and no direct evidence for more than one ite m of information extended over time,† says McElree.In an attempt to reconcile the two theories, psychology professor Paul Verhaeghen, PhD, and his colleagues at Syracuse University replicated McElree's experiment, but tracked participants' response times as they practiced at the task for 10 hours over five days. (See November Monitor, page 35.)â€Å"We found that by the end of day five†¦their working memory [capacity] had expanded from one to four items, but not to five,† says Verhaeghen. â€Å"It seems that both theories are correct.†The focus of attention might expand as other working-memory processes become automated, Verhaeghen says. Perhaps practice improves the process of attaching a position to a number, freeing up the mind to recall up to four numbers, he notes.Some researchers believe the practice effect uncovered by Verhaeghen reflects more efficient information encoding rather than expanded working-memory capacity. According to McElree, the respon se time measures used by Verhaeghen do not provide pure measures of memory-retrieval speed, and the changes in response time with practice could indicate that participants in his study simply became more practiced at encoding numbers vividly, he says.If Verhaeghen's findings can be replicated using other tasks, it could change how scientists conceptualize working-memory limitations. Rather than there being a set limitation, working-memory capacity could improve through practice–suggesting that those with working-memory problems could improve their capacities through repetition. However, practice would need to occur on a task-by-task basis, says Verhaeghen, and, as he points out, â€Å"It is doubtful that practice on n-back generalizes to anything in real life.†Stretching the limitsNew research on children with ADHD, however, might show tasks such as n-back can improve working memory in general, and could help children with the condition.People with ADHD tend to have di fficulty with working-memory capacity, and that deficit could be responsible for their tendency to be distracted and resulting problems at school, says Tannock.Seeking to alleviate such difficulties with his research, Klingberg ran a randomized controlled trial of 53 children with ADHD in which half of the participants practiced working-memory tasks that gradually increased in difficulty.The other half completed tasks that did not get harder as the children became better at them. Both groups of children–who were 7 to 12 years old–practiced tasks such as recalling lists of numbers for 40 minutes a day over five weeks.The children who practiced with increasingly difficult memory tasks performed better on two working memory tests–which were different than the practice tasks–than the control group, reported Klingberg in the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (Vol. 44, No. 2, pages 177–186.)In addition, the parents of child ren with memory training reported a reduction in their children's hyperactivity and inattention three months after the intervention, while the parents of the control group participants did not.Subsequent, yet-unpublished experiments build on those results, Klingberg says.â€Å"We have looked at other groups too: adults with stroke, young adults without ADHD, children with†¦traumatic brain injuries,† he says. â€Å"A general pattern [we've found] is as long as you have working-memory problems and you have the ability to train, you can improve your abilities.†Some researchers suggest that memory training may have more of an effect on motivation than working memory.â€Å"It seems to me that children in the training group may have learned to have a better attitude toward the testing situation, whereas children in the control group–who repeated easy problems–may have learned that the testing situation was boring and uninteresting,† says Cowan. â₠¬Å"The differences that emerged on a variety of tasks could be the result of better motivation and attitude rather than a basic improvement in working memory.†Or, says Klaus Oberauer, PhD, a psychology professor and memory researcher at the University of Bristol in England, the practice effect in both Klingberg's studies might result from people learning to use their limited working-memory capacity more efficiently–perhaps by grouping information into larger chunks or by enlisting long-term memory.â€Å"I think the practice effect [they found] basically is just an ordinary practice effect, in that everything gets faster,† he says.So, even if working memory can't be expanded, adults with grocery lists and children with ADHD may be able to make better use of what little space is available by practicing the task itself or repeating tests of general working memory. And, in the end, the milk gets bought and the reading assignment finished.Reference:Cowan, N. (2005). W orking-memory capacity limits in a theoretical context. In C. Izawa & N. Ohta (Eds.), Human learning and memory: Advances in theory and application: The 4th Tsukuba International Conference on Memory. (pp. 155–175). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P.J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlstrom, K., et al. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD–A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(2), 177–186.  Martinussen, R., Hayden J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory components in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(4), 377–384.  McElree, B. (2001). Working memory and focal attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 27(3), 817–835.  Pernille, J.O., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training in working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 7(1), 75–79.  Verhaeghen, P., Cerella, J., & Basak, C. (2004). A working memory workout: How to expand the focus of serial attention from one to four items in 10 hours or less. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 30(6), 1322–1337.   

Mary Ann Warren–On Abortion

The question of abortion causes heated debates among politicians and moralists, sociologists and philosophers. The main problem society tries to solve is moral statue of fetus and its resemblance with the human being. In the essay â€Å"Abortion, and the concept of a Person† Mary Ann Warren proposes a unique vision on these problems and moral choice of women discussing a status of fetus and its moral rights. Following Judith Thomson, Warren discuses the status of fetus as a person and impact of this approach on moral side of abortion. Warren distinguishes two dimensions: a biological and moral status of fetus. Warren believes that a proper understanding of human biology can somehow rule out the possibility that a fetus is a separate human being. Similar to pro-life advocates she invokes our understanding of fetus, particularly the resemblance between fetuses and babies. Warren states that if we consider fetus a person, it should have the same human rights as other citizens. She opposes this opinion and in her words: ‘in the relevant respects, a fetus, even a fully developed one, is considerably less person-like than the average fish` (Warren). Warren singles out five main factors which could help to distinguish a person in moral and biological sense. A person has consciousness and can feel pain; it (he/she) has the ability to reason and act in ways that go beyond instinct (based on motives and goals). A person has â€Å"the ability communicate and a sense of self† (Warren). Warren rejects the idea that biological resemblance of fetus with the human beings is essential. She states that: [I]f the right to life of the fetus is to be based upon its resemblance to a person, then it cannot be said to have any more right to life than, let us say, a newborn guppy† (Warren). If researchers and moralists accept this position, the implications for women, and for the law, would be staggering. Of course, the traditional immunity of women from prosecution for abortion would be untenable. Any woman who had or sought an abortion would at least be liable to punishment for attempted murder or for aiding and abetting the physician who performed the deed. Warren gives a special attention to cloning and new technologies which could clone a cell from a human body. She asks: â€Å"Are all my cells now potential persons?† Trying to answer this question, she comes to conclusion that a part of a human body, â€Å"in some dim sense, [can] be a potential person† (Warren). Some might argue that a â€Å"person† comes into existence only at the point when there is a specific and determined chromosome genetic identity. Warren argues that if a new-born baby is â€Å"more-person like† and moralists justify abortion, they should also justify infanticide and murder. This is one of the most controversial parts of her essay, because if we assume that infanticide is wrong we should accept that abortion is also wrong. Also, Warren includes the case of homosexuals into discussion. If the society does not treat a fetus as ‘a person’, it should treat homosexuals the same way. In this case, â€Å"we can make a limited point: because of the differences we have noted between a skin cell and a fertilized ovum, it is at least not clear that Warren`s analogy is a good one† (Warren). In answering that question on the premise that the fetus is a person, it is important not to underestimate the extent of the sacrifice being asked of the woman. Critical remaining issues are whether a child which is never born alive is a person within the meaning of the statute, and whether it is possible to prove that the injury caused the unborn child's death. Warren addresses mothers’ choice and their freedom stating that: â€Å"The minute the infant is born, its preservation no longer violates any of its mother`s rights† (Warren). It sometimes is permissible for a pregnant woman to have an abortion because by means of an abortion she stops herself from helping bring about the state that she finds stressful. If she were not helping to bring about the state of affairs in the particular way that she is, she could not interfere with its coming about. Taking into account Warren’s arguments and logic, I suppose that she improperly uses different philosophical and moral categories, law and biological issues. Likewise, those who support abortion rights invoke principles of biology in support of their claim that whatever else it is, a fetus simply cannot be a separate â€Å"person†.   The same is true of the unfertilized ovum is alive. Warren’s arguments and approaches are not clear and even confusing in many points. Her argumentation lacks objectivity and logic that misleads and perplex readers. Thus I agree with Warren that the status of fetus is central in this debate, but we should also take into account mother’s rights and civil liberties. Pregnancy and childbirth are always physically risky activities. More significantly, they produce between woman and child real and life-altering bonds, both psychological and physiological. Woman denied the right to decide whether or not to end a pregnancy is not merely being asked to refrain from killing another person but being asked to make an affirmative sacrifice, and a profound one at that, in order to save that person. Still, there is some force to the moral argument that the right to choose abortion can be distinguished in cases of voluntary, as opposed to involuntary, pregnancy. To be sure, one powerful strand of feminist theory posits that within our society even most nominally sex, particularly in cases where the woman does not feel free to use or to suggest the use of birth control, involves coercion. But if one assumes a pregnancy that did not result from any sort of coercion, then perhaps the imposition of continued pregnancy on the woman may not be unjust. Warren does not include into discussion such important things as fetal age and weight. There remains considerable disagreement over which of many criteria is most adequate in determining viability, and over the precision of any such measures. In addition, the viability rule is difficult to apply because it is an indeterminate concept that depends on the individual development of a specific fetus and the health of the mother. The five factors she used to identify a person can be applied to many animals and primates but we do not consider them as ‘persons’. Thus, following Warren it is by no means enough to show that the fetus is person and that all persons have a right to life – so killing the fetus violates its right to life, i.e., that abortion is unjust killing. Abortion will not be morally wrong if we apply another criteria and factors to analysis of its legacy: typical requirements of the statutes include: the existence of a † person † who has died; the death of the person from injuries resulting from a wrongful act, neglect, or default that would have conferred a cause of action upon the person who has died, had that person survived; and the act, neglect, or default that caused the fatal injury must have been performed by another. I suppose that the logical fallacies are that Warren takes into account only a fetus and compares it rights, moral and legal status with human beings. It would be more important to compare rights and status of a mother vs fetus. The fetus, being person, has a right to life, but as the mother is a person too, so has she a right to life. I agree with Warren that a fetus in not a human yet, but I am disagree that we have a right to compare a fetus with a fish. Presumably they have an equal right to life. The main problem with Warren’s position is that she denies a moral status of fetus. Still, I agree with the author that: â€Å"a right of that magnitude could never override a woman`s right to obtain an abortion at any stage of her pregnancy` (Warren). The major remaining basis of the inconsistency of establishing the rights of the unborn to a cause of action for wrongful death is the question of whether or not a fetus is a person under the appropriate statutes and, if so, at what point in gestation? A related question is whether or not the fetus must be live born before action is allowed. This issue is crucial, because if the fetus is defined as a person, the action will be recognized; if not, the action will be dismissed.   

Morals, Utilitarianism, Social Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Morals, Utilitarianism, Social - Essay Example His nine year old adopted daughter is not bleeding but she has is slowly passing out and is complaining that she is feeling dizzy, cannot breath properly and her vision is hazy. The ambulance arrives and can only competently attend to one patient, take her to the nearest hospital, which is 20 kilometers away, and come for the other victim. If they take his seven year old daughter, it is relative his nine year old daughter will make it that long. His seven-year-old daughter is his real daughter and there is that risk that she might pass out if they take his nine-year-old daughter first. He is torn between which is a lesser wrong; letting his adopted daughter who is at the verge of becoming vegetative be left behind, or his seven year old daughter who is bleeding profusely. Utilitarian theories are based on utility, which is aimed at generating excellent results. These theories intend to maximize the good in every situation by selecting the best possible alternative, while curtailing t he negative alternatives to an event. Utilitarian theory associate a good act with happiness and a bad act with sadness, and use this to determine if an action to be performed is morally right or morally wrong. If the net effect will lead to happiness, then it is morally right but if it will lead to sadness, then it is morally wrong (Hull 1-10). ... Utilitarian theory calls for you to always put the interest of others first before your own personal interest. The ultimate positive goal like honesty, chastity, charity outweighs all the risks and shortcomings of procuring the activity. This means there is a standard in which each activity is performed to elicit the same results over a period of time (Hull 1-10). Kant’s deontology theory asserts that every divine being has the duty to do what is right at all times. Unlike other theories, this theory does not prescribe a formula that needs to be followed but rather provides tests that have to be performed when evaluating the conduct as pertains to a morally significant situation. This theory asserts that good will is intrinsically good hence every individual should be compelled to do good at all times. Whether doing well causes sadness to some people and happiness to others, this call for a duty to do good at all times. Consequently, Kant’s theory states that through ha bitual performance of what is right, it translates to good will and one does not feel compelled to do it. The good will comes automatically (Hull 1-10). Kant’s deontology theory asserts that the consequences of an action do not determine its being right or wrong. This determination is made by the motive and the intentions that are compelling the individual to do the act. Kant’s theory confers that for an action to be morally sound; it has to be on principle not on impulse. The latter does not justify it to be a morally right action since it is majorly done because of sympathy, which might not be standard for every individual. However, the former is standard for every individual and hence qualifies an act done out of principle (ethics) to be morally right (Hull 1-10). Applying the component

PROJECT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

PROJECT - Essay Example In most cases, each of the two behaviors occur independently infrequently, symptoms usually beginning to show before the individual is seven years old. According to a Philip, Gilliam, Liverpool, Weddle, Malek, Sharp, Greenstein, Evans, Rapoport and Giedd (2010), ADHD, also known as Attention deficit disorder (ADD), the condition evidently occurs when the behavior lie at the extreme end of a continuous distribution of cognitive impairments and symptoms and that lie below. A significant number of those having ADHD in childhood are likely to retain the symptoms of the condition in adulthood. Indeed according to Howell, Huessy and Hassuk (1985), those children that exhibited behavior related to ADHD in elementary school risked showing the symptoms in high school and as young adults. In fact most of those with the condition performed poorly in school and had social problems later in life (Howell et al. 1985). This study investigates the relationship between various variables and the prese nce of ADHD. The objective of this study was to establish if there is a significant relationship between the existence of ADD-like behavior and IQ score. ... Age at first assessment, family background, racial/ethnic identity and other background variables were not assessed. Procedure All participants were part of a larger study conducted by Howell, Huessy, and Hassuk (1985). The original study began with 501 children in the second grade and consisted of six stages of data collection: 2nd grade, 4th grade, 5th grade, 9th grade, 12th grade, and 3 years post graduation. The first three assessments were collected via the child’s current teacher, the second two assessments were collected via school records and the final assessment was an extensive interview. Due to normal attrition, the sample size was reduced to 352 children by the end of the fifth grade. The present study utilizes data collected during all six collection periods and includes only those for whom complete data is available (N = 216). Measures Gender. The gender of the child was collected via a questionnaire completed by the child’s second grade teacher. Grade rep etition. Whether or not the child repeated a grade during high school was assessed via school records at the end of the 12th grade. English level. The level of English class the child was enrolled in was assessed via the school record in the ninth grade. The three categories were: remedial, general and college preparatory. English grade. The grade the child received in English during the ninth grade was assessed via school records. Grades were: A, B, C, D, or F. Social adjustment problems. Whether or not the child exhibited any social adjustment problems in the ninth grade was assessed via school records. A child was considered to have a social adjustment problem if there were at least two notations in the record of infractions like disruptive classroom behavior, truancy, or

Article Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Article Critique - Essay Example The difference can show as if they belong to different individuals (Bergner, 2009). Sexual response occurs mainly to the sexual organs that are the genitals (clitoris in females and penis in males) which are engorged with blood because of stimulation. The vagina becomes lubricated making it easy for penetration reducing the possibility of getting hurt during copulation. On the other hand, the penis of the male swells as it is stimulated and hardens enabling it to penetrate the vagina. Males are mostly stimulated while watching heterosexual movies and lesbian (Bergner, 2009). Both males and females are mostly sexually aroused while watching movies from an opposite gender as compared to those of the same gender. Sigmuid Freud states that a persons underlying sexual problems, for example, sexual assault contributes a great deal, on how women respond sexually (Bergner, 2009). Heiman (1990) suggests that women are turned on physiologically by so many stimuli as compared to men who bring the question whether men are inhibited or are bound by their own culture (Bergner, 2009). Females mind and genitals arousal according to Chivers shows discordant in that they are not directly related. This is also shown during rape where during the assault the genitals get aroused which can lead to orgasm irrespective of the individuals willingness. They lubricate to reduce discomfort and injuries that might occur during penetration that can lead to illnesses, death or even loss of fer tility, which can be transmitted, from one generation to the other. The article mostly assumes that the individual reviewed are sexually active. This is vivid in the tone in which the article is written because the author assumes that the reader understand what sexuality is and the processes involved both in theory and out of experience. Another assumption is

Comparative study of coastal protection against flooding between Dissertation

Comparative study of coastal protection against flooding between management alignment, seawall and breakwater design - Dissertation Example The ministry of Agriculture, fisheries and food has estimated that if there were no defence in England and Wales, the annual average value of damage from flooding and coastal erosion would be of the order of nearly  £3 billion, with the existence defence, damage still occur but is of the order of an average  £600 million a year (Maff, 2000) which is still a lot of money. The method that this project is going to be written on will be base on not only one aspect but three, which are economic, environmental and technical issues. Generally the management of flood and coastal defense within a strategic framework encourages practices that avoid disruption to natural processes and which are sustainable in the long term (including adapting to climate change). The areas that this project is going to be based on or the approach strategically will be based on: †¢ Brief introduction to beach morphology †¢ The administrative framework for flood and coastal defence in England and Wales. †¢ Problems with flood and coastal defence policies. †¢ Management realignment †¢ Breakwaters structures from concept to design †¢ Seawalls structures from concept to design †¢ Assessment of the impact of coastal defence †¢ The long-term views; †¢ Innovation in seeking and developing solution; †¢ A comprehensive regard to impacts; ... n seeking and developing solution; A comprehensive regard to impacts; The government flood and coastal defence policy is aiming: ‘‘To reduce risk to people and the developed and natural environment from flooding and coastal erosion by encouraging the provision of technically, environmentally and economically sound and sustainable defence measures.’’(HOC, 1998). Which is ideally what this project is about. BEACH MORPHOLOGY A beach can be defined as a deposit of mobile sediments located on the area in between the sea and the dry land that are regularly interfered with by the daily hydrodynamic processes such as tides, waves and current and in most cases wind (Rogers, Et al, 2010). British beaches around the coastline can be grouped into four main categories which include (i) Shingle, (ii) Shingle upper-sand lower, (iii) Mixed sand and shingle and finally (iv) sand. All the beaches around the UK demonstrate a continuing evolution process and can be practical co nsidered to have began the transformation towards the end of the last Ice Age when the Sea levels were approximately 50-80 m lower than the present day measurement. A clear justification that the beaches are transforming from to time is the fact that during the Ice Age the UK beaches from South Wales to East Anglia of the Britain north were covered by an Ice sheet while presently north of this line, virtually all of the beaches are covered by thick boulder clay deposits laid down beneath the ice sheet (Rogers, Et al, 2010). In certain areas specifically along the south and the east coast of the UK the advancing sea came across and battered soft sedimentary rocks most which comprised of sand and gravels deposited in ancient geological periods and were parts shoreline as cliffs or coastal slopes. It is this

Professional Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Professional Ethics - Essay Example It outlines the implications of such behavior and also discusses professional etiquette. Implications of Conflicts of Interest Conflict of interest in the tender management industry is illegal and may lead to prosecution of individuals or companies that intentionally benefit from the conflict. It leads to award of tenders with total disregard of merit and hence some qualified companies may not have a chance to undertake the work that they are competent in. In most cases, tenders awarded on the basis of conflicts of interest eventually fail or the expected outcome is not realized. According to Worthington & Goldsman (1998), the success of a project depends on the sincerity of the involved parties to satisfy the needs of stakeholders. Conflicts of interests lead to the pursuance of individual benefits while ignoring public interest. The preferred bidder in such a process may quote low prices and eventually end up requesting for additional funding with excuses of high cost of materials or high inflation thereby increasing the cost of a project. Such bidders are to blame for many projects that have turned in to white elephants, yet there might have been genuine bidders who would have accomplished the work at a lower cost (Keyes, 2004). In an economy, companies that do not win contracts as a result of conflicts of interest may become bankrupt in the long-run (O’Connor, 2007). On the other hand, those that are awarded tenders due to their political influence end up having no competitor and therefore they relax in terms of quality standards. A significant loss is experienced in the economy with regards to the desired impacts of the project, while on the other hand such practices promote corruption. Oyer (2005) observes that conflicts of interest in the management of tenders in the Philippines have led to an economic decline that has seen the country being overtaken by Thailand despite of having been ahead of it in the last five decades. In the economies where c onflicts of interest are pronounced, transparency and accountability are concealed from public scrutiny. To avoid the undesirable consequences of conflicts of interest, those involved in tender management should be thoroughly researched to establish if they are personal interests that may hamper the tendering process. Any relationship between the client and bidders needs to be investigated to thwart conflict (Gallagher, 2005). If a person in the tendering process is found to promote conflicts of interest, he/she should be disqualified from participating. In some instances when disqualification of a person is impossible, a conflict of interest can be managed through involving a third party to control the conflict. However, setting up of a code of ethics in tender management is the most significant tool to guide the tendering process. This is because if the code of ethics is adhered to, it can promote professional etiquette thereby preventing extra-professional affairs that may cause conflicts of interest (Ferrell & Fraedrich, 2009). Professional Etiquette Professional etiquette is a scheme of rules and principles that standardize social and professional conduct. In any organization, there are certain set of rules and behaviors that are recognized to have a positive influence on an organization’s strategic objectives. Each position in a bureaucratic organization is guided by principles that are endorsed by

Reckoning essay on Wechlers Vermeer in Bosnia Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Reckoning on Wechlers Vermeer in Bosnia - Essay Example I did not know the people who died in the Moscow subway, yet my friend quite rationally assumed that it would touch me more, considering it happened in my home town. His rationality was built on the assumption that because I lived there, I was somehow closer to the mental concept of the tragedy. Perhaps I was, but I do not think I felt anything more exceptional than my friend did for those people. It seemed like something you ought to feel sad about, yet in the end we both went to get our afternoon coffee. I think about why we, as people, think that just because we belong to a certain geographical place, the events unfolding there should matter to us more. Perhaps the event would have mattered to me more if I had been in Moscow still. Just like Vermeer who was visibly affected by the war; the war resulted in the â€Å"devastation of the Dutch economy and Vermeer’s own †¦ bankruptcy† (Weschler 15), which eventually may have even caused him to die at the young age of 42. Yet, in his paintings, one finds a sense of calm and peacefulness. This sense of calm is so apparent that Antonio Cassese, an Italian judge presiding over the Yugoslav War Crimes Tribunal, confides to Weschler that his way of keeping his sanity in front of all the madness and chaos of the Yugoslav war, and listening to the vivid stories of the inhumanity of humans, is to go â€Å"to the Mauritshuis museum, in the center of town, so as to spend a little time with the Vermeers† (Weschler 14). The paintings of Vermeer in the Mauritshuis museum offer something akin to that to Weschler as well. He is sure, as are others who have had the chance to gaze upon the paintings and try to find a deeper meaning to them, that something like peace and tranquility is transmitted through these paintings. Albeit there are those (like Snow) who find a very different, and sexual, meaning to the paintings, however, Weschler feels that, surrounded by chaos, Vermeer was trying to

Assess the role of Lend-lease in securing Allied victory Essay

Assess the role of Lend-lease in securing Allied victory - Essay Example However, the trigger for the development of the Act was the position of Germany in Europe. Germany had conquered France and had thus completed the conquest of mainland Europe and had broken its peace agreement with Britain by attacking it. Although the Royal Air force had proved a key force in defending the country in the Battle of Britain, the war machinery of the country had weakened and it was struggling to hold its position. Germany was consolidating its position in Europe and was preparing to attack the Soviet Union. Background The allied powers of Britain and France remained passive in spite of the growth of the German war machinery. In fact, they remained quite even after Czechoslovakia was attacked and attempted to protect their immediate interests. Britain and France declared war on Germany when it attacked Poland however France fell into German hands soon after. America was able to maintain its non – involvement through its physical isolation. President Roosevelt tim e and again stressed that it was not their war and intended to stay away from it. Subsequently, when war reached the shores of the British mainland, the United States began to act and President Roosevelt called for a legislation to ‘Promote the Defense of the United States’. Although it took many months for the act to come into motion, the terms took shape much earlier. The Lend – Lease Act which provided supplies to the USSR was much more complicated and took more time. However, Britain had initiated help to the USSR much before the United States and supplied a small but significant number of tanks and aircrafts in 1941 – 42. Sensing that the German offensive had begun to weaken on the eastern front, the United States became more involved in its aid to the USSR. Hence, a significant amount of American aid to Russia followed only after the victories of the Red Army on the eastern front. Lend – Lease Act The Lend - Lease Act was approved by the US Co ngress on 11th March 1941. It was the arrangement through which all war supplies that included food, machinery and other services apart from weapons were transferred to nations whose security was considered important to the security of the US. The Lend – Lease Act also gave powers to the President of the United States to decide the terms of repayment and also decide on the time period up to which the recipient nations would receive aid, mentioned in the act as "The terms and conditions upon which any such foreign government receives any aid authorized under subsection (a) shall be those which the President deems satisfactory, and the benefit to the United States may be payment or repayment in kind or property, or any other direct or indirect benefit which the President deems satisfactory" (Lend - Lease Act, 1941). The Act contained only 11 sections but it would prove to have a wide ranging impact at the time and beyond since many of the clauses gave the President a great deal of power. Unspecified powers were given to the President in terms of support that could be extended through the act. Lend – Lease activities continued not only between the US and other allied nations but also between the allied nations themselves such as Britain and the USSR, etc. However, the United States was the main contributor to the other nations and by mid 1945, when it was

A pair of blue eyes Essay Example for Free

A pair of blue eyes Essay With reference to the first seven chapters, show how Hardy uses the novels setting to develop character It has been said by many critics, that the main focus of Hardys pre-19th century novel The Return of the Native, is none of the characters, but the almost animate heath land upon which it is set. Hardys methods of describing the heath, allows us to view it as several different things to several different characters, for example, Eustacia Vye, to whom the heath is a prison, or Clym Yeobright, husband of Eustacia, who views Egdon Heath as an area housing the commonest man, a group of people who have been transformed into simplicity by the heath, who he can educate. One possible reason of this is because the heath is written to seem almost ancient, thus has had time to adapt to the way nature shapes the landscape at its will, at present, a place perfectly accordant with mans nature . With features such as barrows, Hardy has created a religious, almost pagan feel to the heath land, with on which the main characters congregate in the first few scenes, to hold a bonfire, giving the night air upon the land an eerie feeling throughout the rest of the book. The weather upon the heath through the early chapters is somewhat harsh, the storm was its love, the wind was its friend yet still the characters persist to roam the heath at night, Eustacia especially, searching endlessly for an escape. One good example is where Eustacia awaits Wildeve upon a barrow, but she utters a sigh as she waits, pondering whether he will arrive, thrown out with the winds, it became twined in with them. It is events like these which Hardy gives us insight to, that we can see the development of the characters, for example, this is just another step of Eustacia becoming even more heavily buried within the land. Hardy also uses inanimate objects other than the heath, to create an atmosphere, such as the fire which burns between Wildeve and Eustacia as they speak, The revived embers of passion glowed clearly in Wildeve now. However, Eustacia does not light a communal bonfire for the sake of community, nor for the sake of sanity, similar to the locals who feel that communication through bonfire separates them from the heath, perhaps as many as thirty bonfires could be counted within the whole bounds of the district. She lights her fire, and attempts to communicate with something which will set her free from the realm a man, to either take her from Egdon to America, such as Wildeve promises, or back to Paris, the location from which her husband has come. Another interesting feature of Hardy using objects, rather than words or actions to describe how a character feels, is Eustacia constantly viewing the heath from her telescope, as if she is hoping for some kind of miracle, a knight in shining armour to come and whisk her from her feet. Another good example of a similar event is her checking her hourglass while waiting upon the heath. These two items, the telescope in particular being from distant places (of which she wishes she could travel to), differ significantly from peasant tools or items, from which she is eager to disassociate herself from. However Hardy is again referring to the vastness of the heath, by implementing a telescope, and the immense age of the heath, by an hourglass, however, for Eustacia, the hourglass diminishes the vastness of the heath, almost providing her with something shes wished for. The heath folk seem to exist in a more than comfortable relationship with the heath, and the heath in a comfortable relationship with civilisation, as it becomes overgrown; the humans cut the furze and faggots, and put them for good use fire. The folk seem to be driving off the darkness, upon November 5th, Guy Forks night, upon a barrow used for burials in the past, the ashes of the original pyre which blazed from that summit lay fresh and undisturbed in the barrow beneath their tread. The locals dont even appear to be celebrating this fact, more so finding comfort in the spotting of other fires lighted in the district. The people here are highly superstitious, and due to the size of the community, and involvement with other communities (very little), the heath only fuels their ideas, as is shown in the third chapter, when the heath folk are talking about Christian a man who no man would marry, for the reason of the date he was born upon having no moon,No moon : hey neighbours, thats bad for him? This early superstition in the novel serves many purposes, the main ones being reader interest, and plot evolution for it is a form of superstition, voodoo, which a heath folk uses against Eustacia as she finally tries to negate the heath, causing her death. Another pastime which suitably provides the heath inhabitants when they are not creating fire is gossip. The heath only fuels the peoples desire to talk about others business, because the community is very small, so hence everybody is aware of the news of everybody else, for instance, the news of Clyms success as a scholar travels for miles before he has even reached the age of three. Personally, I do not subscribe to the belief that the heath is a character within its own right, even though Hardy inspires such thoughts with phrases such as The storm was its lover, the wind was its friend. I believe that Hardys immense concentration upon the heath is merely a sign of two its importance to the play, and as a method which he can use to develop the rest of the characters, such as Eustacia, helping her to constantly arrive at a state of enlightenment which feels that nothing is worthwhile..

Epidemiology of Schizophrenia Essay Example for Free

Epidemiology of Schizophrenia Essay Medical experts view schizophrenia as the cancer of all mental illness. This is because it is possibly the most dangerous and devastating mental illness known to man. Today, about one in every 100 mature American suffers from schizophrenia. This translates to nearly 2.5 million people. At the present, the disease has no known cure and it can only be managed. Although schizophrenia can manifest itself in any age, majority of the schizophrenic people show signs in their early twenties. In most cases, males show the first signs of schizophrenia at an earlier stage compared to females but unlike most other mental illnesses, the disease is evenly distributed across gender (McGrath, et al. 2005). Although there has been much research touching on this disease, the exact cause of schizophrenia is still unknown. However, researchers have found out through brain scans of individuals suffering from the disease that there are notable differences from a brain scan done on a person who does not have the diseases. However, the biggest cause of schizophrenia is believed to be genetic factor since the disease runs in families. There is also a belief among researchers that people develop schizophrenia due to the absence of some fundamental genes. In order to best understand the epidemiology of schizophrenia in the U.S., this paper will first seek to define epidemiology in order to make it easier to understand this disease in a better way. The paper will then proceed to define and illustrate the epidemiology triangle and give an illustration of how this is related to schizophrenia (Jablensky, 2003). Epidemiology Epidemiology is the investigation of the occurrence, distribution, and causes of diseases among other health-affiliated situations in human beings. Additionally, epidemiology also deals with how the investigation of these factors can be utilized to promote better health and to prevent and manage health problems. In trying to address the issue of epidemiology, the focus is usually on the outcome of disease on a certain population rather than on individuals. Ideally, some certain diseases might prevalent in some areas while others are rare. Although the rare disease might be more deadly as compared to the prevalent one, epidemiology tends to give more emphasis on the prevalent disease since it affects many people (Hennekens, Buring, 1987). Ideally, the fact that epidemiology deals with the issue of frequency goes ahead to prove that it is a quantitative science. Epidemiology specifically deals with the rate of occurrence of diseases and supplementary health related conditions. The frequency of diseases is determined by morbidity and the rate of death. Ideally, epidemiology goes beyond the confines of the disease to cover other health related conditions because every human activity has a direct effect on health. Health related conditions are factors, which have a direct or indirect consequence or influence on human health (John, 2001). When discussing distribution in epidemiology, the issue that is considered is the geographical distribution of infections, the circulation in relation to time, and distribution in the manner of the individuals that are affected in a certain region. In addition to distribution, epidemiology also examines the determinants issues, which are the determining factors on whether or not a person will contract an illness. Lastly, epidemiology seeks to investigate the issue of how the clinical investigations of the disease can be used to promote better health and to prevent and control related health problems (John, 2001). Disease Causation In order to carry out an epidemiology of a certain disease, it is critical to examine how diseases are caused. Ideally, the cause of a disease means the events, conditions, characteristics or an amalgamation of all these factors, which plays a significant role in bringing out the disease. In examining the cause of any disease, the first thing to examine is the primary causes. Generally, primary causes are the factors, which are critical for an illness to happen. In order to make the examination of disease causes to sound more scientific, the term etiologic agent is used in place of the primary cause. For example, in the epidemiology of pulmonary tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis is considered the etiologic agent or the main cause (Mausner, Bahn, 2010). In addition to the primary causes in the examination of disease causes, the risk factors are also considered. Although risk factors might not be necessary for a disease to occur, the truth is that they have a significant role in the formation of diseases. Ideally, any factor that is linked with heightened incidence of a disease is a risk factor for the exposed population. In most cases, risk factors have an association to the agent but in other cases, they might have a direct relation to the population and the surroundings (Mausner, Bahn, 2010). The Epidemiologic Triangle Fig 1.1 Diagrammatic Representation of the Epidemiologic Triangle Agent Host Environment The epidemiologic triangle shows the association among the agent, environment, and host in the incidence of disease. In this triangle, the agent is considered a factor whose existence or nonexistence, insufficiency or surplus is essential for a particular illness to happen. On the other hand, the environment incorporates all the outside factors, other than the agent that can affect health. These two factors are then classified according to whether they fit in the societal, bodily or genetic environments. Ideally, the societal environment covers a wide spectrum of factors including the education level, unemployment, and many other factors as pertains to political and the legal systems (Mausner, Bahn, 2010). Epidemiology of Schizophrenia According to statistics, an average of 1 percent of American adults suffers from schizophrenia at any given year thus bringing the figure to more than 2.5 million people. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), schizophrenia affects an average of 24 million people worldwide with the worldwide prevalence standing at 8 percent. Given that 2.5 million of these people live in the U.S., it is clear that the country has the highest cases of schizophrenic cases (Eaton, 1991). Ideally, it is important to note that schizophrenia is fundamentally different from incidence of the disease. When talking about an incidence of 8 percent – 1 percent, this does not indicate the number of people diagnosed with schizophrenic cases in any given year. On the contrary, the prevalence rate refers to the average number of people who are suffering from schizophrenia at any given time thus demonstrating on how widespread the disease is. On the other hand, the incidence rate depicts the number of people who are freshly diagnosed with schizophrenia at a specific time and it is used to gauge the possibility of contracting the disease. Since schizophrenia is considered a chronic disease meaning that sufferers stay with it for life, the prevalence rate is higher compared to incidence. According to statistics, the incidence rate of schizophrenia is about 3 in every ten thousand people and one of the three people is an American (Jablensky, 2000). Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Despite all the medical advances today, mental illness remains hard to diagnose. However, with schizophrenia being viewed as a serious condition, much research is being carried out to develop ways of diagnosing the disease before its manifestation. At the present time, the diagnosis is based on the presence of clinical indications. Unlike other diseases, a qualified psychiatrist or psychologist can only conduct schizophrenic diagnosis. Despite this, a person suspected to be suffering from schizophrenia is still subjected to laboratory tests in order to rule out the presence of other related medical disorders such as brain tumors (Eaton, 1991). In the U.S., a person suspected to be schizophrenic is interviewed and observed by a healthcare professional and by the people around the individual in order to obtain a clear clinical image. If after ruling out the presence of other mental conditions the person still demonstrates signs of the disease, then a diagnosis of schizophrenia is specified. The biggest challenge of diagnosing schizophrenia in both the U.S. and elsewhere in the world is that the individual might be paranoid and hence become opposed to examination. In most cases, the individual does not think that he has a problem and this means that he/she does not seek medical attention without any prompting (Eaton, 1991). Incidence Ideally, the incidence rate of schizophrenia in the U.S. differs significantly among various groups. Although the disease is believed to be present in nearly every group, this rate is believed to be higher among migrants. In addition to this, the disease is also believed to be higher among twins but this might be due to the genetic factor that the disease posits. By way of incidence estimates, the average estimate among migrant groups is close to 15.2 percent for every 100,000 migrants with the average among natives standing at about 10.2 percent for every100, 000 people. This goes ahead to show that the disease is evenly distributed among Americans despite of race. Despite this, the various studies conducted to determine the incidence rates between migrants and Native Americans have shown significant differences. In the past, the disease was believed to be prevalent in urban centers but this belief has been discounted with the passage of time. The distribution of the incidence estimate does not also show any difference according to economic status (Eaton, 1991). Prevalence The prevalence rate of schizophrenia in the U.S. has been consistent across the various studies conducted over the years. Ideally, the lifetime prevalence rate stands at 5.0 per every 1,000 individuals. Overall, schizophrenia is believed to affect one in every a hundred Americans and this estimate is based on the data collected by government agencies on lifetime morbid risk data thus making it reliable (Jablensky, 2000). Mortality Rate Schizophrenia is believed to be one of the leading causes of death in America. Compared to the ordinary person, a schizophrenic person has a two-threefold increased possibility of dying. This risk in increased by the fact that schizophrenic people are most likely to commit suicide. However, schizophrenic people are still most likely to die due to the comorbid somatic conditions presented by the disease. In the last few years, the mortality rate of schizophrenia in the U.S. has been on the rise. This is because schizophrenic people do not share in the improved health enjoyed the rest of the society. The increased mortality rate could also have been increased by the increase of generic antipsychotic medicines that have flooded the American market (Jablensky, 2000). Outcomes after Diagnosis The statistics on the outcome of America citizens diagnosed with schizophrenia is not encouraging at all. According to researchers, 25 percent of people diagnosed with schizophrenia end up leading normal lives after ten years of living with the disease while 25 percent of those improve but still require personalized treatment. However, the remaining 50 percent end up hospitalized where 10 percent of those end up committing suicide (Brown, 2000). Although there have been significant strides in diagnosing and treating schizophrenia cases in the U.S., the fact remains that so much still needs to be done. The government has been supporting legislations that seek to fund studies on the function of brain chemistry, brain enhancement, and genetic configurations and how these can be used to find a cure for this mental cancer. Doctors have also become adept at diagnosing the disease at an early stage although the drugs to treat the disease are still not as effective and this has hampered the efforts to control the disease in America (Brown, 2000). Conclusion In the conclusion, it must be stated that medical experts consider schizophrenia as the cancer among all the mental illness. This is because it is possibly the most dangerous and devastating mental illness in existence. Despite the numerous breakthroughs in medical science, the cause and cure for schizophrenia has not yet been found. Today, America is believed to be the leading country in the world in schizophrenia cases. Unlike other conditions, the incidence and prevalence rates are equal across the gender and the ethnic divide. Despite this, the prevalence rate of schizophrenia is believed to be higher among migrants as compared to Native Americans. References Brown, S. (2000). Excess Mortality of Schizophrenia: A Meta-Analysis. Br J Psychiatry 171: 502-508. Eaton, W. (1991). Update on the Epidemiology of Schizophrenia. Epidemiol Review 2: 105-126 Hennekens, C. and Buring, J. (1987). Epidemiology in Medicine. Toronto: Little, Brown and Company. Jablensky, A. (2000). Epidemiology of Schizophrenia: The Global Burden of Disease and Disability. Psychiatry Today 2 (250): 274-285. Jablensky, A. (2003). Schizophrenia: The Epidemiological Horizon. Oxford: Blackwell Science. John, M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. London: Oxford University Press. Mausner, G. and Bahn, K. (2010). Introductory Text of Epidemiology. Second Edition. W. B. Saunders. McGrath, J., Saha, S., et al. (2005). A Systematic Review of the Incidence of Schizophrenia; The Distribution of Rates and the Influence of Sex, Urbanicity, Migrant Status and Methodology. BMC Med 2, (13): 56-100.

Image Analysis of Cleopatra

Image Analysis of Cleopatra This paper analyses non-literary sources in terms of what information they can provide about Cleopatra, including visual images, analyses of numismatic evidence, and analysis of inscriptions. The paper relies on six main sources: Austin’s The Hellenistic world: from Alexander to the Roman conquest. A selection of ancient sources in translation; Goudchaux’s 2001 essay entitled Cleopatra’s subtle religious strategy, found in Higgs’ and Walker’s Cleopatra of Egypt: from history to myth, which is also a source; Holbl’s History of the Ptolemaic Empire; Howgego’s Ancient history from coins (approaching the ancient world) and Pollitt’s Art in the Hellenistic Age. From these sources, images of Cleopatra, from sculptures, pottery, mosaics and coinage, amongst others, are discussed, and their relevance to Cleopatra’s image are analysed and discussed. As Howgego (1995) argues, coins have far more than monetary value, they can be important in defining power and power structures, in terms of politics and in terms of imperialism, recognising, however, that is difficult to describe ancient political and power structures in modern terms, as they were so very different from the structures that are around at the moment, and, as such, describing such structures in terms of modern definitions can often itself lead to misunderstandings and flaws in research undertaken. The vast majority of coins that are known, for example, show Cleopatra as a Hellenic ruler, although she was, of course, the last Queen of Egypt. This attests to the fact that Cleopatra was a great manipulator, and that, indeed, she manipulated her image whilst alive in order to retain power, in politics, and over people. Portraying herself in Hellenistic images allowed Cleopatra to show to her people that she was not only ruler of Egypt, but, through her control of Alexandri a, ruler of all of the Hellenistic world. As Goudchaux points out in his 2001 essay Cleopatra’s subtle religious strategy, Cleopatra was a Ptolemy who spoke Egyptian. She had claim to Egyptian territory, through her family, and also to Hellenistic lands, as contemporary coinage suggest. Cleopatra therefore had political and territorial control of many lands, and also moved freely between many cultures, accepted as she was in Egypt and across the Hellenistic world. Goudchaux (2001) argues that she was an innovative ruler, and most definitely a product of her family’s power and history. In this essay, Goudchaux (2001) makes the point strongly that Cleopatra wanted to understand Egyptian concepts of religion as she realised that religion was one of the bonds which united the Egyptian people and which created a bond with the land, in terms of people having a focal point in the temples, all of which were dedicated to Egyptian gods. As such, Cleopatra was aware that, in some respects, by controlling religion, she would control the Egyptian people. Priests, Cleopatra realised, were the highest peak of Egyptian society, with priests commanding great respect and holding society together. Cleopatra realised this, realised the power of religion in Egyptian society, and it is known that Cleopatra herself held great respect for Egyptian priests and did everything she could to understand Egyptian religion, in terms of keeping priests close to her and ensuring that they followed her rule. This she then used to form bonds with Roman generals, for example, Caesar, and, indeed, Cle opatra built a temple in Rome when she visited Caesar. Romans found Egyptian style to be in vogue at some point in their history, but as Cleopatra would later realise, this was a fleeting fashion, which soon fell out of favour with the majority of Roman rulers. Cleopatra, therefore, as Goudchaux (2001) makes clear, was a shrwed politician, who knew what needed to be done, and when, in order to keep abreast of shifting power struggles, and to keep hold of her territory, which many people wanted (including the Roman generals). Cleopatra’s highly political character, in which she used her connections with many cultures (Ptolomeic to Egyptian to Roman to Hellenistic) to achieve her political aims, according to the needs of her kingdom as she saw them, itself led to many images of Cleopatra being produced. We have images of Cleopatra looking Egyptian, and images of Cleopatra looking Egyptian but with some Greek features, for example. All of these images are useful in that they allow pieces to be dated accurately, according to Cleopatra’s known movements and interactions with other rulers. As Goudchaux (2001) argues, as we have seen, Cleopatra was well aware of the power of imagery, and she used imagery as a political tool, in terms of ensuring her self-presentation was faultless in order to achieve her political aims. As Walker (2001) argues, in his essay in Higgs and Walker (2001), Cleopatra was a master manipulator, allowing images of herself to be created as the need arose, such that we have images of Cleopatra that are Egyptian in origin, such as Egyptian reliefs, which show Cleopatra as regal, and all powerful. We also have Roman images of Cleopatra, which, whilst on the face of it seem not to be flattering, as they show Cleopatra as womanly and in almost pornographic positions, but, understood in the context of Roman society at that time, are actually a compliment to her womanliness, and a way of presenting Cleopatra to the Romans in a way which would be appreciated by this society. Other images of Cleopatra, from coins, for example, show Cleopatra with very str ong features, not at all beautiful as is normally supposed, and are thought to be a reflection, a re-take on the portraiture of her father, Ptolemy XII, as a way of recalling her lineage to her people. Imagery of Cleopatra is thus both complex and complicated, and in order to understand Cleopatrian imagery, one needs to read this imagery in the context of the time at which it was made, and what political happenings were occurring at the time of the image being made. Higgs and Walker (2001) analysed nearly four hundred artefacts relating to Cleopatra and her life, in an attempt to understand Cleopatra’s iconography. The book, which is essentially a catalogue of the British Museum exhibition of the same name, includes many new images of Cleopatra, including some papyrus bearing her signature which was recently discovered, has caused as much sensation as the exhibition, with many ancient scholars arguing against the book, that it does not contain sufficiently in-depth research, and that the research it does contain is not high quality. This caveat aside, the edited book contains many interesting essays, amongst them Higgs’ Searching for Cleopatra’s image: classical portraits in stone which makes it clear that it is, actually, extremely difficult to identify Cleopatra in ancient sculptures, in particular, because, as we have seen, Cleopatra was a master manipulator of her image, and as such, there are many different kinds of images of Cleopatra, and then, on top of this, because of the artistic licence that many artists took when defining Cleopatra in their work. Higgs picks out some of what he considers to be essential features of any image of Cleopatra, including snakes, hairstyles and heads which are separated from the body (representing, bizarrely, power), and shows that these features can be used, generally, to identify images of Cleopatra. Goudchaux’s essay in this volume, as we have seen, is extremely useful in coming to some understanding of the imagery of Cleopatra, in terms of her religious beliefs and her use of religion to gain, and maintain, political power, but it is also useful in showing how subjective analyses of images of Cleopatra can be, and how maleable these images are, in that one person can look at an image of Cleopatra, on a coin for example, and find it beautiful, whereas another person can look at that very same image and find not beauty, but plain regalness, for example. As Goudchaux states, the fact that many of Cleopatra’s coins were made not from gold but from silver alloys, means that some of these coins have not survived well and that, because of this decay, they can provide distorted images of Cleopatra, simply by virtue of their damaged condition[1]. This degradation of imagery also needs to be taken in to account, Goudchaux argues, when assessing the power and purpose of imag es of Cleopatra, and the information that can be gained from such images and imagery. This analysis of the various images of Cleopatra and the way in which Cleopatra manipulated her image, and allowed her image to be manipulated, as a way of gaining and maintaining power over her people and over foreign rulers shows, ultimately, the necessity for Cleopatra to act in the way she did, in terms of ruling over a land that many people wanted to gain control of, from a city that the Romans wished to rule. Her manipulation of her image, on coins she minted, for example, was, as Howgego (1995) argues, a direct way for Cleopatra to portray the image of herself that she wanted to portray to her people, in order to gain the effect she wanted to gain from her people i.e., submission and support. As Higgs and Walker (2001) show, through their choice, and cataloguing, of nearly 400 artefacts relating to Cleopatra, Cleopatra was not just a master manipulator of her own image: she used art and imagery as a political tool, in an attempt to gain influence abroad. Higgs and Walker (2001) argue, for example, that the Roman Palestrina Nile Mosaic, which, it is argued by Goudchaux (2001), is a dedication from Cleopatra to the Roman goddess Fortuna, was gifted to the Romans as a way of gaining an in-road in to Roman society. Such gifts, replete with political imagery and significance were a feature of ancient society, a way of gaining a presence in a foreign nation, for example, and so Cleopatra’s usage of such imagery can, perhaps, be better understood in this context: that it was a routine way of attaining one’s wishes, in political terms. As such, perhaps, Cleopatra, through manipulating her own image, was doing nothing more than repeating a routine occurrence. As Pelling (2001) argues in his essay entitled Anything truth can do, we can do better: the Cleopatra legend, in Walker and Higgs (2001), that exaggerated portrayals of Cleopatra were common within Egypt and across the ancient world, and as Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra had a great role to play in this exaggeration; contemporary and more modern accounts of Cleopatra as the ‘beauty’ and even, for example, Cleopatra’s adoption by the black rights movement in the United States is no more than a continuation of Cleopatra’s own manipulation, that the appropriation of Cleopatra’s image, and the continuation of the ‘myth’ of Cleopatra’s beauty and power is no more than a way in which to borrow power from her image and to lend power to contemporary arguments and causes. This analysis of the various images of Cleopatra and the way in which Cleopatra manipulated her image, and allowed her image to be manipulated, as a way of gaining and maintaining power over her people and over foreign rulers has shown, ultimately, as we have seen, the necessity for Cleopatra to act in the way she did, in terms of ruling over a land that many people wanted to gain control of, from a city that the Romans wished to rule. The debates over Cleopatra’s supposed beauty is rather peripheral to the life that Cleopatra led, as ruler of Egypt and as over-seer of the Hellenistic world. As this study has shown, images of Cleopatra were created not with the task of conveying her beauty[2], but with conveying her power and her abilities to rule, and her willingness to continue to rule. References Austin, M.M, 2006. The Hellenistic world: from Alexander to the Roman conquest. A selection of ancient sources in translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goudchaux, G.W., 2001. Cleopatra’s subtle religious strategy. In S.Walker and P.Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from history to myth. Higgs, P. and Walker, S. (eds.), 2001. Cleopatra of Egypt: from history to myth. Princeton University Press. Holbl, G., 2001. History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. Howgego, C., 1995. Ancient history from coins (approaching the ancient world). London: Routledge. Pollitt, J., 1986. Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1 Footnotes [1] Coins recently discovered in a bank vault in Newcastle, however, which are in mint condition show Cleopatra in a very bad light, not at all beautiful, with hooked nose and chin. See The Guardian 14th February 2007 article entitled Antony and Cleopatra: coin find changes the face of history by Martin Wainwright. [2] Indeed, as argued by Hamer (2001) in her essay in Higgs and Walker (2001) entitled The myth of Cleopatra since the Renaissance, this obsession with Cleopatra’s beauty is a modern obsession, that developed from the Renaissance onwards, and was not a defining feature of imagery of Cleopatra that was produced during her time.

Analysis of Shakespeares The Tempest - Effective Use of the Cliffhanger :: free essay writer

The Tempest:   Effective Use of the Cliffhanger The first scene of The Tempest is unlike most of the openings in Shakespeare's plays, in that includes quite a bit of action. Instead of properly introducing some of the main characters, or setting up an important plot strand, this opening scene appears to be only an attention-grabbing device.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This statement can be made quite justifiably, due to the fact that all the events of Act 1 Scene 1 are recounted in the following scene, in the conversations between Miranda, Prospero and Ariel. Under ordinary circumstances, it is quite likely that Shakespeare would have removed the first scene and just relied upon the audience paying attention to what was being said in the second scene - indeed, if these events took place some way into the play, he may have considered doing this. However, as an opening scene, Scene 2 would have been rather boring and uninspiring - it consists almost entirely of lengthy explanatory dialogue from Prospero. Audiences would not have been drawn into the play very effectively; and at the time the play was written, during the 17th Century, audiences were not as reserved and polite as they are these days and they might not have reacted very well to being bored.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scene 1 solves this problem by abandoning all explanation of the events unfolding, as well as much of the characterisation and concentrating on creating an exciting and tense opening scene which immediately engages the audience's attention. Theatres of the time when The Tempest was written were very basic, and would not have been able to achieve the special effects and clever sets that we see in modern theatres. Therefore, Shakespeare had to rely on more subtle, but equally effective, techniques to convey the correct atmosphere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most obvious things about this first scene is how short the characters'   lines are. There is just one moderately sized speech, lines 20 - 25, but the rest are all only four to six lines long. This hurried dialogue immediately signals that the characters are panicking, and that they do not have time for long conversations. From the script itself, we can see that there are an awful lot of exclamation marks in the dialogue; this is because the characters are shouting to be heard above the noise of the storm.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While nowadays the storm would probably be created using recordings of thunder and crashing waves, perhaps along with creaking sounds of the ship breaking up, theatre in Shakespeare's day would not have had this luxury.

Gendered Ideals of Body Form Essay -- Gender Studies

Gendered bodies in the West are bodies of contrasts. A masculine, sharp, inverted triangular body is contrasted to the feminine, soft, hourglass shape. Humans, throughout history, have resorted to drastic measures to meet and exemplify gendered ideals of body form. One such measure that has been in place since the Victoria era is the wearing of corsets. In attempting this research, I thought that wearing a corset would provide an insight into the ways feminine bodily ideals are appropriated by women in a Western context. Putting on the corset proved to be a challenge; only with the assistance of my roommate could I put it on. She laced the back up to as tight as it went and I wore it underneath my normal daily clothes. My first thought when wearing it was that it felt like a hug, when your body is encapsulated within something; it was quite pleasant and had an almost motherly feeling about it. As soon as I wore it, I immediately realized that I had to learn to control my breathing be cause the corset would feel extremely tight every time I exhaled. Travelling in the car and on the train proved to be a challenge because the corset forced my body to arch my back and sit up straight, which is not the way I normally sit. When I slouched or moved in a way that the corset did not allow, it would dig into my stomach and ribs in a painful way. While walking, I realized that I was pushing my chest out and standing very straight. This made me feel like I was embodying the typical ‘empowered woman’ image that shows a woman as sexy, confidently striding along an urban landscape, independent and beautiful. However, as the day went on, the uncomfortable sweatiness that it brought me made me loath wearing it. Coming home, I took it off and wonder... ...er and Power at a Treatment Center. London: Duke University Press. Riordan, G. (2007). The Corset Douglas, M. (1966). External Boundaries. In Purity and Danger. (pp. 140-159). New York City: Routledge Classics . Savacool, J. (2009). The World Has Curves: The Global Quest for the Perfect Body. New York City: Rodale Books. Steele, V. (1985). Fashion and Eroticism. New York City: Oxford University Press. Turner, B. S. (1996). The Body and Society. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Controversy: Author(is)ing the Subject in/ of Tight-lacing.Social Semiotics, 17(3). Urla, J., & Swedlund, A. C. (1995). The Anthropometry of Barbie: unsettling ideals of the feminine body in popular culture. In J. Terry & J. Urla (Eds.). Deviant Bodies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Wolf, N. (1991). The Beauty Myth. New York City: William Morrow and Company Inc..

A Plan for the Resolution of the Argentine Debt Crisis Essay -- Essays

A Plan for the Resolution of the Argentine Debt Crisis INTRODUCTION: Over the past five years Argentina has suffered from one of the worst economic crises of its history. Mired by currency devaluation, diminished business confidence, contracting GDP, and a large current accounts deficit, the Argentine economy is, at very best, weak. Of its problems, Argentina’s international debt is of greatest concern. Servicing the debt has created a large financial burden for the Argentine government limiting the steps it has been able to take to stimulate economic growth. Since temporarily stopping payment on US$132 billion of debt in 2001 , Argentina has experienced some economic expansion, but this growth has come with large costs. Foreign banks’ condemnation of the default has made Argentina a pariah in the international investment community. Meanwhile, the interest on the outstanding loans is compounding at an astronomical rate increasing Argentina’s debt burden significantly. Unfortunately for Argentina, encouraging international investment and reducing its debt are both essential for a sustained economic recovery. These goals will not be achieved through default, even if it is temporary, as banks are the self-imposed moral authorities on debt and investment and are likely to make Argentina pay a high price. Instead, Argentina must cleverly implement debt reduction mechanisms involving third-party purchase of its discounted debt. It will be the primary responsibility of Argentina’s newly elected president, Mr. Kirchner, and his administration, to stimulate the country’s feeble economy by reducing the public debt. Downsizing its debt will help Argentina to reestablish itself as a creditworthy nation and spur economic... ... and Business, . â€Å"How the debt should be canceled,† Debt & Development Coalition: Ireland, . Krueger, Anne O., â€Å"Crisis Prevention and Resolution: Lessons from Argentina,† International Monetary Fund, 17 July 2002, . MERCOSUR, 6 March 2003, . Moye, Melissa, â€Å"Overview of Debt Conversion,† London: Debt Relief International Ltd., 2001. Powell, James E., â€Å"Time Value of Money,† 1 June 2002, . Rhoter, Larry, â€Å"Argentina Struggles to Meet Debt-Relief Terms.† New York Times, 11 February 2003, . A Plan for the Resolution of the Argentine Debt Crisis Essay -- Essays A Plan for the Resolution of the Argentine Debt Crisis INTRODUCTION: Over the past five years Argentina has suffered from one of the worst economic crises of its history. Mired by currency devaluation, diminished business confidence, contracting GDP, and a large current accounts deficit, the Argentine economy is, at very best, weak. Of its problems, Argentina’s international debt is of greatest concern. Servicing the debt has created a large financial burden for the Argentine government limiting the steps it has been able to take to stimulate economic growth. Since temporarily stopping payment on US$132 billion of debt in 2001 , Argentina has experienced some economic expansion, but this growth has come with large costs. Foreign banks’ condemnation of the default has made Argentina a pariah in the international investment community. Meanwhile, the interest on the outstanding loans is compounding at an astronomical rate increasing Argentina’s debt burden significantly. Unfortunately for Argentina, encouraging international investment and reducing its debt are both essential for a sustained economic recovery. These goals will not be achieved through default, even if it is temporary, as banks are the self-imposed moral authorities on debt and investment and are likely to make Argentina pay a high price. Instead, Argentina must cleverly implement debt reduction mechanisms involving third-party purchase of its discounted debt. It will be the primary responsibility of Argentina’s newly elected president, Mr. Kirchner, and his administration, to stimulate the country’s feeble economy by reducing the public debt. Downsizing its debt will help Argentina to reestablish itself as a creditworthy nation and spur economic... ... and Business, . â€Å"How the debt should be canceled,† Debt & Development Coalition: Ireland, . Krueger, Anne O., â€Å"Crisis Prevention and Resolution: Lessons from Argentina,† International Monetary Fund, 17 July 2002, . MERCOSUR, 6 March 2003, . Moye, Melissa, â€Å"Overview of Debt Conversion,† London: Debt Relief International Ltd., 2001. Powell, James E., â€Å"Time Value of Money,† 1 June 2002, . Rhoter, Larry, â€Å"Argentina Struggles to Meet Debt-Relief Terms.† New York Times, 11 February 2003, .

Logotherapy: Meaning of Life and Frankl Essay

Viktor Frankl was an Austrian man born in 1905. He was the father of Logotherapy which is referred to as the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy. Frankl followed in the footsteps of other famous psychologists including Sigmund Freud. He pioneered the thought that a person can move forward in one’s life after a traumatic or rough experience by finding new meaning in life. Though many of his ideas were derived from Freud’s and Adlers previous thoughts, he also took an new approach to helping people. Thus the beginning of Logotherapy. He was first published in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis when he was in high school. He then went to secondary school and began working on his degree in psychiatry and Neurology in medical school. Frankl went to the same school in Viennese as Sigmund Freud. At first Frankl was extremely interested in Freudian psychoanalysis but soon started to disagree with his therapy methods. Frankl thought that Freuds views were to narrow and did not agree with Freud’s idea’s that sexual impulses could explain the majority of human behavior (Hoffman, 1995). After studying Freudian psychoanalysis, he became interested and focused on environmental and societal factor to explain human behavior, which was Alfred Adler’s psychology view (Frankl, Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography , 1997). While studying the teachings of Freud and Adler he began forming his own very different therapy known was logotherapy, which is defined as healing through meaning. After graduation he was promoted in the hospital in Vienna to the head of suicide and depression prevention, where he treated over 3,000 women. During this time, he formed his own private practice where he began to utilize logotherapy (Frankl, Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography, 1997). He then could ask his clients questions about how they were feeling and what was keeping them alive and moving forward in such a low time in their lives. He then noticed because of the question that he was asking people seem to be suffering from lack of meaning in their lives than the loss of employment (Hoffman, 1995). In 1937 Frankl started to write articles about what he called logotherapy. Then in 1938, Frankl had to give up his private practice and was forced to relocate. He was transferred to the Rothschild hospital where he could only treat Jewish patients; due to the Nazi control (Hoffman, 1995). The Nazi euthanasia program forced extermination on many clients who were suffering from brain injuries and psychological illnesses, and Frankl was forced to watch these executions. To try and save the mentally ill personnel he began to falsify documents to help avoid euthanasia. He would change their diagnosis so that they would not be transferred for the euthanasia program and could stay with their families. While at the hospital he would get about a dozen of men and women who attempted to commit suicide. Where he tried to help them find meaning and life and to continue the fight. He was then married in 1941 to Tilly Grosser, and a year later Frankl’s and his family were arrested and brought to concentration camps. While in the concentration camps Frankl knew that he could not change his situation but could help those around him and himself by counseling in his barracks. During his imprisonment Frankl dug ditches, volunteered at the typhus ward, and also set up a suicide prevention program (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). After the long hard days of the prisoners being beaten, starved, Frankl would help the prisoners understand that their experiences were helping them develop strengths for the future (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). When Frankl was in Auschwitz he first wrote â€Å"The Doctor and the Soul† and it was then discovered and then the book was destroyed. In April of 1945 Frankl’s camp was liberated. Frankl and his sister were the only two who survive during their stay throughout the various concentration camps. His father died from starvation and his mother and wife were murdered by the gas chambers. He then reconstructed his book â€Å"The Doctor and the Soul† and it was then published, and nine days following he published a second book which sold over 11 million copies before he died and became known as â€Å"Man’s Search for Meaning†. The original title of that book was â€Å"Saying yes to life in spite of everything†. This book describes his experiences throughout his stay in concentration camps and also his theory of logotherapy (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). During this time Frankl met his second wife named Elenore Schwindt and had a baby girl soon after they were wed. Frankl went on to author over 38 books and to speak around the world on his experiences and logotherapy. Frankl lived a long life and died on September 2, 1997 when he was 92 years old. Logos is a Greek word that which stands for meaning. Therefore logotherapy focuses on a person’s search for meaning, the search relates to finding purpose in one’s life or tasks (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Frankl found that humans are more oriented towards meaning and seek meaning in all their circumstances (Kimble & Ellor, 2009). The idea of logotherapy began back in 1921 when Frankl was still in high school (Guttmann, 1996). Then while in the concentration camps, the people who had a better chance of survival were those that had hope of being reunited with loved ones, ones with faith, or ones that felt as if they had a purpose in life that they had to complete. This is how logotherapy started off by 1960 logotherapy gained worldwide recognition. Logotherapist do not tell their patients what to see but simply corrects their ability to see (Kimble & Ellor, 2009). Logotherapist also help search for positive meaning that underlines behavior, thought and action. Throughout therapy certain techniques are used. Paradoxical intention is a technique used to help patients with anxiety, phobias and obsessive compulsions (Guttmann, 1996). It is part of therapy when you confront your fears, in essence you tell yourself to do the opposite of what you truly want, like try not to fall asleep when you are truly trying to sleep. A specific strategy that logotherapist use is dereflection; it is used when clients focus on negatives (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). Dereflection is a technique that you shift attention from oneself and onto others, problems often disappear. Frankl noted that the meaning of life is different from person to person and from situation to situation. Therefore he states that there is not a general meaning in life for all humanity (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). There were three different basic principles that are composed to make up logotherapy, and help discover meaning. The first basic principle of logotherapy is life has meaning under all circumstances. The second principle is that all people have a will to achieve meaning in their life. Finally the third principle is people have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to find meaning (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Throughout a clients therapy the goals concerning the outcome of their treatment consist of the client being able to be aware of his/her choices. The goals guide the clients to understand current experience, and past experiences and the meaning for the purpose of life. They also recognize factors that block freedom and can accept freedom and responsibility. The tragic triad is composed of three different elements guilt, death, and unavoidable suffering. Any part of the tragic triad can happen to anyone and it will always be a part of mankind. Each person reacts differently to each situation. When we are faced with one of these elements it is then when we realize we need to improve our lives and begin to act. Situations cannot be changed but your attitude on the situation can be (Guttmann, 1996). But when life has no meaning it becomes empty, is what Frankl calls existential vacuum. The existential vacuum creates a hole, which needs to be filled. People try to fill their hole with superficial things or anything that provides some satisfaction; such as drugs, eating to an excess or not at all, anger, obsession, or fear. Behaviors such as depression, aggression and addiction were caused by the loss of meaning. There are also two levels of meaning. Ultimate meaning is a meaning that we can never reach. It can be a god or science as the search for truth, nature, and evolution for those who do not believe in god or an ultimate being (Guttmann, 1996). The other level of meaning is meaning in the moment, which is the understanding meaning of each moment by fulfilling the demands that life places on us. Frankl points out that there are three ways to find meaning in life and is often referred to as the meaning triangle. The first way to find meaning is through creative works. It is what and how we give to the world through self-expression. The second is by experiencing; by what we take or receive from the world through nature, culture, relationships, and interactions with others and with our environment. The third way to find meaning is with a change of attitude. Even if we can’t change the situation or the circumstances, we can still choose our attitude towards the condition. These are the ways that a client can help find meaning in their life. These attitudinal values as Frankl calls them, is when being confronted with a hopeless situation a person has a way to find meaning (Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, 1959). Throughout Frankl’s life he was inspired to help people. While throughout his experiences he was able to develop logotherapy which has become a widely used therapy process and techniques. His life experiences and trials helped him to form a therapy that not only people with issues should follow but all of us as well. He still helps find people a meaning and purpose in life. References Frankl, V. (1955). The Doctor and the Soul. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1959). Man’s Search for Meaning. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1997). Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography . New York: Plenum. Guttmann, D. (1996). Logotherapy for the Helping Professional. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Hoffman, E. (1995, March 18). Viktor Frankl at 90: A Voice for Life. America, pp. 17-22. Ivey, A. E. , Ivey, M. B. , & Zalaquett, C. P. (2010). Intentional Intervieing & Counseling. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Kimble, M. A. , & Ellor, W. J. (2009). Logotherapy: An Overview. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 11:3-4, 9-24.